18.6.2026

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+# Operating Systems
+
+> Overview of Linux distributions and Microsoft Windows for server, container, and AI/GPU workloads, including support lifecycle, EOL dates, and comparison.
+
+---
+
+## Distribution overview
+
+| Distribution | Family | Package manager | Init | Security | Reference platform |
+|-------------|--------|----------------|------|----------|-------------------|
+| **Ubuntu LTS** | Debian | apt (deb) | systemd | AppArmor | NVIDIA DGX, widest AI/GPU support |
+| **Debian** | Debian | apt (deb) | systemd | AppArmor | General-purpose server, stability |
+| **RHEL** | Red Hat | dnf (rpm) | systemd | SELinux | Enterprise standard, SAP, Oracle DB |
+| **Rocky Linux** | Red Hat | dnf (rpm) | systemd | SELinux | RHEL binary compatible (free) |
+| **AlmaLinux** | Red Hat | dnf (rpm) | systemd | SELinux | RHEL binary compatible (free) |
+| **SLES** | SUSE | zypper (rpm) | systemd | AppArmor | HPC, SAP, mainframe |
+| **OpenSUSE Leap** | SUSE | zypper (rpm) | systemd | AppArmor | Desktop, development |
+| **OpenSUSE Tumbleweed** | SUSE | zypper (rpm) | systemd | AppArmor | Rolling release, bleeding edge |
+| **Fedora** | Red Hat | dnf (rpm) | systemd | SELinux | Desktop, technology preview |
+| **Arch Linux** | Independent | pacman | systemd | — | Rolling, power users |
+| **Alpine Linux** | Independent | apk | OpenRC | — | Container image, embedded |
+| **Flatcar Container Linux** | Independent | — (image-based) | systemd | — | K8s worker node, minimal footprint |
+| **Bottlerocket** | Independent | — (image-based) | systemd | — | AWS K8s, minimal footprint |
+
+---
+
+## Support lifecycle and EOL dates
+
+> **Standard:** base support (bug fixes, security). **LTS/ELS:** extended support (security only).
+> ESM = Ubuntu Extended Security Maintenance, EUS = RHEL Extended Update Support, LTSS = SUSE Long Term Service Pack Support.
+
+### Ubuntu LTS
+
+| Version | Release | Standard support | ESM / Ubuntu Pro | Note |
+|---------|---------|-----------------|------------------|------|
+| **20.04 LTS** (Focal) | 2020-04 | End 2025-04 | End 2030-04 | Last release with Python 2 |
+| **22.04 LTS** (Jammy) | 2022-04 | End 2027-04 | End 2032-04 | NVIDIA DGX standard |
+| **24.04 LTS** (Noble) | 2024-04 | End 2029-04 | End 2034-04 | Latest GPU/CUDA support |
+| **26.04 LTS** (planned) | 2026-04 | End 2031-04 | End 2036-04 | — |
+
+### RHEL
+
+| Version | Release | Full support | Maintenance support | Extended life cycle |
+|---------|---------|-------------|-------------------|-------------------|
+| **7** | 2014-06 | End 2019-08 | End 2024-06 | End 2028-06 (ELS) |
+| **8** | 2019-05 | End 2024-05 | End 2029-05 | End 2034-06 (ELS) |
+| **9** | 2022-05 | End 2027-05 | End 2032-05 | End 2037-06 (ELS) |
+| **10** (planned) | 2025 | End 2029 | End 2034 | — |
+
+### Rocky Linux / AlmaLinux
+
+| Version | Release | Support until | RHEL compatible | Note |
+|---------|---------|-------------|-----------------|------|
+| **8** | 2021-06 | 2029-05 | Yes (since RHEL 8.4) | Alma/Rocky |
+| **9** | 2022-07 | 2032-05 | Yes (since RHEL 9.0) | Alma/Rocky |
+
+### Debian
+
+| Version | Release | Full support | LTS support | ELTS (paid) |
+|---------|---------|-------------|-------------|-------------|
+| **11** (Bullseye) | 2021-08 | 2024-08 | End 2026-08 | End 2028-08 |
+| **12** (Bookworm) | 2023-06 | 2026-06 | End 2028-06 | End 2030-06 |
+| **13** (Trixie) | 2025 (expected) | ~3 years post-release | ~5 years post-release | — |
+
+### SLES
+
+| Version | Release | General support | LTSS | Note |
+|---------|---------|---------------|------|------|
+| **15 SP3** | 2021-06 | End 2024-12 | End 2027-12 | — |
+| **15 SP4** | 2022-06 | End 2025-12 | End 2028-12 | — |
+| **15 SP5** | 2023-06 | End 2026-12 | End 2029-12 | Current SP |
+| **15 SP6** | 2024-10 | End 2027-12 | End 2030-12 | — |
+
+### Fedora
+
+| Version | Release | EOL | Note |
+|---------|---------|-----|------|
+| **38** | 2023-04 | 2024-05 | — |
+| **39** | 2023-11 | 2024-12 | — |
+| **40** | 2024-04 | 2025-05 | — |
+| **41** | 2024-11 | 2025-12 | — |
+
+Fedora releases a new version every ~6 months, EOL ~13 months after release. Serves as upstream for RHEL.
+
+### Alpine Linux
+
+| Version | Release | EOL |
+|---------|---------|-----|
+| **3.18** | 2023-05 | 2025-05 |
+| **3.19** | 2023-12 | 2025-12 |
+| **3.20** | 2024-05 | 2026-05 |
+| **3.21** | 2024-12 | 2026-12 |
+
+---
+
+## Kernel version per distribution
+
+| Distribution | Kernel (default) | Kernel (HWE/enhanced) | Note |
+|------------|-----------------|----------------------|------|
+| Ubuntu 22.04 LTS | 5.15 (GA) | 6.5+ (HWE) | HWE from 22.04.2 |
+| Ubuntu 24.04 LTS | 6.8 | — | — |
+| RHEL 8 | 4.18 | — | Backported features |
+| RHEL 9 | 5.14 | — | Backported features |
+| RHEL 10 | 6.11+ (expected) | — | — |
+| Rocky/Alma 8 | 4.18 | — | Same as RHEL 8 |
+| Rocky/Alma 9 | 5.14 | — | Same as RHEL 9 |
+| Debian 11 | 5.10 | 6.1 (backports) | — |
+| Debian 12 | 6.1 | — | — |
+| SLES 15 SP5 | 5.14 | — | — |
+| SLES 15 SP6 | 6.4 | — | — |
+| Fedora 40 | 6.8+ | — | Rolling upstream |
+| Alpine 3.20 | 6.6 | — | — |
+
+---
+
+## Use case comparison
+
+| Use case | Recommended distribution | Rationale |
+|----------|------------------------|-----------|
+| **AI/GPU cluster (DGX)** | Ubuntu 22.04 LTS / DGX OS | NVIDIA standard, CUDA, MLNX_OFED |
+| **Enterprise K8s (OpenShift)** | RHEL 9 / RHCOS | Red Hat support, GPU Operator |
+| **Vanilla K8s (on-prem)** | Ubuntu 22.04 LTS + Flatcar (workers) | Community support, minimal worker image |
+| **HPC cluster (Slurm)** | Rocky Linux 9 / Ubuntu 22.04 | EL ecosystem + Lustre, or Ubuntu |
+| **Traditional enterprise DB (Oracle, SAP)** | RHEL 9 / SLES 15 | Vendor certification |
+| **Container host** | Ubuntu 22.04 / Alpine | Broad image compatibility / min size |
+| **Development / desktop** | Fedora / Ubuntu 24.04 / OpenSUSE Tumbleweed | Latest packages, HW support |
+| **Embedded / IoT** | Debian / Alpine / Yocto | Minimal footprint, stability |
+| **Edge inference** | Ubuntu (ARM) / NVIDIA JetPack | Jetson, GPU support |
+| **Mainframe (IBM z/Arch)** | SLES 15 / RHEL 9 | IBM certification |
+
+---
+
+## Package management comparison
+
+| Feature | apt (Debian/Ubuntu) | dnf (RHEL/Rocky/Alma/Fedora) | zypper (SUSE) | pacman (Arch) | apk (Alpine) |
+|---------|--------------------|------------------------------|---------------|---------------|-------------|
+| **Package format** | .deb | .rpm | .rpm | .pkg.tar.zst | .apk |
+| **Repo management** | /etc/apt/sources.list | /etc/yum.repos.d/ | /etc/zypp/repos.d/ | /etc/pacman.conf | /etc/apk/repositories |
+| **Lock file** | — (apt-mark hold) | — (exclude) | — (lock) | — (IgnorePkg) | — |
+| **Transactional update** | No | Yes (dnf history) | Yes (zypper history) | No | No |
+| **Rollback** | No (manual) | Yes (dnf history rollback) | Yes (snapper + zypper) | No | No |
+| **Delta updates** | Yes (apt-xapian) | Yes (deltarpm) | Yes (zsync) | No | No |
+| **Version (as of 2025)** | apt 2.7+ | dnf 4.18+ | zypper 1.14+ | pacman 6.1+ | apk 2.14+ |
+
+---
+
+## Security model comparison
+
+| Feature | SELinux (RHEL derivatives) | AppArmor (Ubuntu/Debian/SUSE) |
+|---------|--------------------------|-------------------------------|
+| **Type** | Mandatory Access Control (MAC) | Mandatory Access Control (MAC) |
+| **Labeling** | Context-based (user:role:type) | Path-based (profile per executable) |
+| **Configuration** | Policy (modules, booleans) | Profiles (text, in /etc/apparmor.d/) |
+| **Modes** | Enforcing / Permissive / Disabled | Enforce / Complain / Disabled |
+| **Learning curve** | Steep (complex policies) | Moderate (simpler profiles) |
+| **Default in** | RHEL, Rocky, Alma, Fedora | Ubuntu, Debian, SLES, OpenSUSE |
+| **Use case** | Enterprise multi-tenant, regulated | General-purpose server, app containment |
+| **Container integration** | SELinux labels on container | AppArmor profile on container |
+
+Additional layers:
+- **seccomp** — syscall filtering (default in containerd, Docker)
+- **Capabilities** — Linux capabilities (drop all except required)
+- **cgroups v2** — resource isolation (CPU, memory, IO, PID)
+- **User namespaces** — rootless containers (Podman, Docker rootless)
+
+---
+
+## Recommended migration path for EOL distributions
+
+| From | To | Recommended approach |
+|------|-----|---------------------|
+| Ubuntu 20.04 (EOL 2025) | Ubuntu 22.04 or 24.04 | `do-release-upgrade` or fresh install |
+| RHEL 7 (EOL 2024) | RHEL 8 or 9 | `leapp` upgrade, or fresh install |
+| Rocky/Alma 8 | Rocky/Alma 9 | `dnf upgrade --releasever=9` |
+| Debian 11 (EOL LTS 2026) | Debian 12 | `apt full-upgrade` + new sources.list |
+| SLES 15 SP4 (EOL 2025) | SLES 15 SP6 | `zypper migration` |
+| Fedora 40 (EOL 2025) | Fedora 42+ | `dnf system-upgrade` |
+
+---
+
+## Microsoft Windows
+
+### Windows Server — editions
+
+| Edition | Price (approx) | Core limits | VM rights | Use case |
+|---------|---------------|-------------|-----------|----------|
+| **Datacenter** | ~$6,155 (2025) | Unlimited | Unlimited Windows VMs per host | Virtualization, SDDC, S2D, HCI |
+| **Standard** | ~$1,069 (2025) | 2 CPU, unlimited cores | 2 Windows VMs + Hyper-V host | General server, AD, file server |
+| **Essentials** | ~$501 (2025) | 1 CPU, max 10 users | — | Small business (≤25 users) |
+| **Azure Edition** | Pay-as-you-go | Per Azure VM | Per Azure | Azure-only, hotpatching |
+
+Licensing: Windows Server Standard and Datacenter are licensed **per core** (min 16 core/server + 8 core/VM).
+
+### Windows Server — support lifecycle
+
+> **Mainstream:** regular updates (bug fixes, security, features). **Extended:** security updates only (free).
+> **ESU:** Extended Security Updates (paid tier, ~$45–300/core/year).
+
+| Version | Release | Mainstream support | Extended support | ESU | Note |
+|---------|---------|------------------|-----------------|-----|------|
+| **2012 R2** | 2013-11 | 2018-10 | 2023-10 | End 2026-10 (year 3) | ESU paid, final year |
+| **2016** | 2016-10 | 2022-01 | 2027-01 | — | Last with Desktop Experience |
+| **2019** | 2019-01 | 2024-01 | 2029-01 | — | Last with Nano Server (1803 only) |
+| **2022** | 2021-09 | 2026-10 | 2031-10 | — | Current, TPM 2.0, Credential Guard |
+| **2025** | 2024-11 | 2029-10 | 2034-10 | — | Hotpatching, PowerShell 7, SMB over QUIC |
+
+### Windows Server — version vs edition feature grid
+
+| Version | Hyper-V | Storage Spaces Direct | Software-defined networking | Containers | GPU DDA / vGPU | WSL2 |
+|---------|---------|---------------------|---------------------------|------------|---------------|------|
+| 2016 Standard | Yes | No (DC only) | No (DC only) | Windows only | Yes | No |
+| 2016 Datacenter | Yes | Yes | Yes | Windows | Yes | No |
+| 2019 Standard | Yes | No | No | Windows | Yes | No |
+| 2019 Datacenter | Yes | Yes | Yes | Windows | Yes | No |
+| 2022 Standard | Yes | No | No | Windows + Linux | Yes | No |
+| 2022 Datacenter | Yes | Yes | Yes | Windows + Linux (2022.2+) | Yes | No |
+| 2025 Datacenter | Yes | Yes | Yes | Windows + Linux | Yes | Yes |
+
+### Windows Desktop — support lifecycle
+
+> **E = Enterprise, Pro = Professional, Home = Consumer**
+> LTSC = Long Term Servicing Channel (stable, no feature updates)
+
+| Version | Release | EOL (Home/Pro) | EOL (Enterprise) | LTSC EOL | Note |
+|---------|---------|---------------|-----------------|----------|------|
+| **10 21H2** | 2021-11 | — | 2024-06 | — |
+| **10 22H2** | 2022-10 | 2025-10 | 2025-10 | — | Final Windows 10 |
+| **10 LTSC 2021** | 2021-11 | — | — | 2032-01 | IoT Enterprise LTSC |
+| **11 22H2** | 2022-09 | 2024-10 | 2025-10 | — |
+| **11 23H2** | 2023-10 | 2025-11 | 2026-11 | — |
+| **11 24H2** | 2024-10 | 2026-10 | 2027-10 | — | First with Recall, Copilot+ |
+| **11 LTSC 2024** | 2024-10 | — | — | 2029-10 | Enterprise LTSC |
+
+Windows 10 support **ended 2025-10-14** — last version with classic Control Panel.
+
+### Windows vs Linux — comparison
+
+| Feature | Windows Server | RHEL / Ubuntu |
+|---------|---------------|---------------|
+| **License (server)** | $500–6,000 (per core) + CAL | $0–800 (per node subscription) |
+| **License (desktop)** | $100–200 (OEM/retail) | Free |
+| **Support cost** | Included in license (SA/ESU) | $200–1,300/node/year (RHEL) |
+| **Package management** | MSI, AppX, winget, NuGet | APT, DNF, Zypper |
+| **Package count** | ~10,000 (chocolatey) | ~60,000+ (Ubuntu repo) |
+| **Desktop GUI** | Windows Shell (mandatory) | Optional (GNOME, KDE, XFCE…) |
+| **Server GUI** | Windows Shell (core-only since 2022) | CLI-only (standard) |
+| **Kernel** | NT hybrid kernel (kernel-mode Win32) | Monolithic Linux kernel |
+| **Device support** | OEM driver model (WHQL) | Open source + vendor drivers |
+| **Container types** | Windows + Linux (WSL2) | Linux (Docker, Podman, containerd) |
+| **Container registry** | Docker Hub, ACR, Nexus | Docker Hub, Quay, GHCR, Nexus… |
+| **Container image size** | ~4–8 GB (Windows Server Core) | ~100 MB – 1 GB (Alpine/Ubuntu) |
+| **GPU passthrough** | DDA (Discrete Device Assignment) | GPU Direct, VFIO, SR-IOV |
+| **AI/ML support** | WSL2 (CUDA), Azure ML | Native CUDA, ROCm, oneAPI |
+| **CUDA support** | Yes (via WSL2 or Docker) | Native (nvidia-container-toolkit) |
+| **Orchestration** | AD / GPO / SCCM / WAC | Ansible, Puppet, Salt, Foreman |
+| **RBAC/AAA** | Active Directory (+ Kerberos) | LDAP, FreeIPA, SSSD, AD |
+| **Remote management** | RDP, WinRM, PowerShell Remoting | SSH, Cockpit, Webmin |
+| **Filesystem** | NTFS, ReFS, CSVFS | ext4, XFS, Btrfs, ZFS |
+| **Max file system size** | 256 TB (NTFS), 1.2 YB (ReFS) | 1 EB (XFS), 16 EB (ZFS) |
+| **Hypervisor** | Hyper-V (Type 1) | KVM (Type 2-like), Xen |
+| **Dynamic memory** | Hyper-V Dynamic Memory | KSM, virtio-balloon (KVM) |
+| **Live migration** | Hyper-V Live Migration | KVM Live Migration, vMotion |
+
+### Windows specific features
+
+| Feature | Description | Linux alternative |
+|---------|------------|-------------------|
+| **Active Directory** | Identity, auth, GPO, DNS, DHCP | FreeIPA, Samba AD DC, 389-ds, SSSD |
+| **Group Policy** | Central desktop/server configuration | Ansible, Puppet, Salt (agent-based) |
+| **Hyper-V + S2D** | Hyper-converged storage and virtualization (HCI) | Proxmox Ceph / oVirt + Gluster |
+| **Failover Clustering** | Cluster-aware apps (SQL, File Server) | Pacemaker + Corosync + DRBD |
+| **IIS** | Web server, ASP.NET host | Nginx, Apache (.NET host possible) |
+| **PowerShell** | Scripting, Desired State Configuration | Bash, Python, Ansible |
+| **Windows Admin Center** | GUI management | Cockpit, Webmin |
+| **BitLocker** | Full disk encryption | LUKS + cryptsetup |
+| **Windows Defender** | Antivirus + EDR | ClamAV, Wazuh, Osquery |
+| **SQL Server** | Relational database | PostgreSQL, MySQL, MariaDB |
+
+### Recommended OS per use case (including Windows)
+
+| Use case | OS | Rationale |
+|----------|-----|-------|
+| **Active Directory / GPO / hybrid ID** | Windows Server 2022/2025 | AD is Windows-only |
+| **SQL Server (failover cluster)** | Windows Server Datacenter + SQL EE | Always On FCI, ReFS |
+| **Exchange / SharePoint** | Windows Server 2022 | Windows-only |
+| **Enterprise desktop management** | Windows 11 Enterprise + Intune/SCCM | GPO, AD, enterprise MDM |
+| **.NET / ASP.NET apps** | Windows Server / Linux (.NET Core) | .NET 6+ runs on Linux |
+| **HCI (Microsoft stack)** | Windows Server Datacenter + S2D + Hyper-V | Azure Stack HCI |
+| **Virtualization (mixed workload)** | Windows Server Datacenter (Hyper-V) | Linux + Windows VMs under one |
+| **AI/GPU inference** | Linux (Ubuntu) + CUDA | NVIDIA optimal; WSL2 alternative |
+| **Container orchestration (Windows nodes)** | Windows Server 2022/2025 + containerd | Windows Pods in AKS on-prem |
+| **Tier 2 apps / web / API** | Ubuntu or RHEL (Linux) | Lower TCO, smaller footprint |
+
+### Windows Server migration paths
+
+| From | To | Recommended approach |
+|------|-----|---------------------|
+| Windows Server 2012 R2 (EOL 2023) | Windows Server 2022/2025 | In-place upgrade or fresh + migration |
+| Windows Server 2016 (EOL 2027) | Windows Server 2022/2025 | In-place upgrade or fresh |
+| Windows Server 2019 | Windows Server 2022/2025 | In-place upgrade (`Setup.exe /auto upgrade`) |
+| Windows Server 2022 | Windows Server 2025 | In-place upgrade or fresh |
+| Windows Server → Cloud | Azure VM / Azure Stack HCI | Azure Migrate, Storage Migration Service |
+| Windows Server → Linux | Ubuntu / RHEL (re-platform) | Migrate app to .NET Core or alternative |
+
+### Windows — API and operational limits
+
+| Limit | Windows Server | Windows Desktop |
+|-------|---------------|----------------|
+| **Max RAM** | 24 TB (2025 Datacenter) | 2 TB (Pro/Enterprise), 128 GB (Home) |
+| **Max CPU sockets** | 64 (Datacenter), 2 (Standard) | 2 |
+| **Max CPU cores** | Unlimited | 128 (Pro), 64 (Home) |
+| **Max file size (NTFS)** | 256 TB | 256 TB |
+| **Max file size (ReFS)** | 18.4 EB (2025) | — |
+| **Max volume size (NTFS)** | 256 TB | 256 TB |
+| **Max volume size (ReFS)** | 1.2 YB (theoretical) | — |
+| **Max dedup volume** | 64 TB (Data Deduplication) | — |
+| **Max cluster nodes** | 64 (Failover Cluster) | — |
+| **Max VM per host** | Unlimited (Datacenter) | — |
+| **VM memory per VM** | 12 TB (2022+) | — |
+| **VM vCPU per VM** | 240 (2022+) | — |
+| **Concurrent RDP** | 2 (admin), 200+ (RDS CAL) | 1 (Home), more (RDP host) |
+| **PowerShell Remoting** | Unlimited (WinRM) | Yes (WinRM) |
+
+---
+
+## Related
+
+- [AI-INFRASTRUCTURE.en.md](AI-INFRASTRUCTURE.en.md) — OS for AI workloads, GPU drivers, kernel parameters
+- [KUBERNETES.en.md](KUBERNETES.en.md) — container runtime, orchestration
+- [HYPERVISORS.en.md](HYPERVISORS.en.md) — hypervisors, VM host OS
+- [DATACENTERS.en.md](DATACENTERS.en.md) — DC layout, HW platforms
+
+## Sources
+
+Links, books, and standards: [sources/infrastructure/sources.en.md](sources/infrastructure/sources.en.md)
+
+*Last revision: 2026-06-18*